Thursday, 17 October 2024

 At the occasion of the Geoethics Day 2024


Referring to two attributes of the year 2024, namely the unbroken drive of artificial intelligence and the decision of the geological establishment to consider a geological epoch ' Anthropocene' to be non-appropriate, ChatGPT4.0 was promoted to assess the decision [*]. In addition, the AI provided a picture to portray IUGS's choice. 

[*] https://www.iugs.org/_files/ugd/f1fc07_40d1a7ed58de458c9f8f24de5e739663.pdf


Sunday, 5 March 2023

An Exploration: History of Science & Geo-philosophical Studies

Introduction

In the first instance, geoethics emerged as an intra-disciplinary endeavour in responsible geosciences. During the last few years, geoethics’ scope expanded [1] [2]. Therefore, my study programme aggregates insights from other disciplines, iteratively reconstructs geo-philosophical enquiries, and consolidates philosophical foundations. 

How the practice and theory of ‘comparative Justice’ [a] emerged in geoethical studies illustrates this learning programme:· From early on [3], the practice of ‘comparative Justice’  characterised geoethical thinking. For example, the ‘Cape Town Statement on Geoethics’ (2106) stressed that ethically sound operational practices depend on the respective environmental, social and cultural settings [4], or worded differently, “a strong awareness of the technical, environmental, economic, cultural and political limits existing in different socio-ecological contexts” [b].  The Indian Economist, Philosopher, and Nobelist Armatya Sen investigated the Rawlsian theory of ‘Justice as Fairness’ in the book ‘The Idea of Justice’ [5], published in 2010, showing why ethically just choices “taken in a specific social and cultural setting, that respect the ethical norms of this setting, may appear unethical elsewhere”, to quote scholars in geoethics [6] (p.30). Hence, from the onset, geoethics advocated pluralism of ethically sound choices (i.e., comparative Justice). However, those (the author included) who pursue developing geoethical thinking only recently noticed essential philosophical studies supporting this approach.

This experience illustrates that interdisciplinary and comparative study could further geo-philosophical enquiries, including geoethics. In the following, this exploration is extended, venturing into the field of the theory of the history of science.

Problem Statement

Part One

In recent years, it became clear (for me) that geoethics is a notion in plural. It could be schematised like this:

geoscientific topic + philosophical insight = geophilosophical enquiry

Subsequently, the enquiries could be written as a mathematical ‘set’: {GT i; PI j} = {GPE i,j}. 

Considering that for a given geo-philosophical appraisal the geoscientific topics and philosophical insights likely are composites the description of a geophilosophical appraisal should be

{ {GT i ; PI } i=1,n; j=1,m } = {{GPE i,j } n,m } =  {GEA n,m }.

The number of specific geophilosophical enquiries ( GPE i,j) and appraisals (GEA n,m) is vast because geoscientific topics (GT i ) are numerous and the applicable (philosophical) insights (PI j) into moral, epistemic or social features of human practices are many.  

Example: 

To illustrate why to pursue this quest to schematise geoethics: The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Ediacaran period [c] is a unique geoscientific feature. How to rule sampling this site for research purposes?



This question is a specific geophilosophical appraisal (i.e., geoethical issue). It first includes a geoscientific topic, “GT sampling the Ediacaran GSSP for research”, and second, a philosophical insight about applicable norms “PI j”, for example, a specific set of deontological rules [d] [7]. 

Although the outcome of the given geophilosophical enquiry will depend on the chosen deontological rules, the geophilosophical appraisal can be described as {GE sampling the Ediaaran GSSP for research, various deontological rules }. This set of enquiries might be pretty vast, although not as vast as the set of geophilosophical enquiries into the sampling of geoheritage sites [8] [9] [10] for research, training or education. 

As this examples show, no end is visible to the diversity of geophilosophical appraisal. Hence, the issue arises: What systemic description of geophilosophical appraisals is possible?

Part Two

In the first instance, a conceptual description of all geophilosophical enquiries “GE i;j” may appear of little practical value for responsible geosciences. However, the recent development of geoethical thinking raises the stakes. Initially, professional experiences led geoscientists to put together epistemic-moral hybrids [11], e.g. The Cape Town Statement on Geoethics [4], a relatively regular program of responsible sciences [12]. Then, combining geosciences and political philosophies more comprehensively, geo-philosophical assessments of human practices as part of the Earth System emerged [1] [2].

Hence, geoethical thinking addresses more general subjects than the responsible conduct of geoscience professionals [9] [10]. The respective geo-philosophical enquiries assess the Human-Earth Nexus by amalgamating insights into (a) the dynamics of the Earth System; (b) socio-historical features of human societies; (c) philosophical appraisals of socio-political choices.

Given such a complex geo-societal application context of geoethical thinking, understanding the general nature of geo-philosophical appraisals is needed.  Again, the issue arises: What systemic description of geo-philosophical enquiries is possible?

A partial Remedy – An Exploration

Drawing on the experience made with the concept of ‘comparative Justice’, a systemic approach to describe geo-philosophical enquiries are likely found outside geosciences. I discovered an approach in J. Renn’s book “The Evolution of Knowledge – Rethinking Science for the Anthropocene” [13].

Scholars of the History of Science recently developed a theory of the Evolution of Knowledge [13] [14] [15]. When applying this thery to societies experiencing anthropogenic global change, they discern the concept of an ergosphere to depict the essence of the Human-Earth Nexus:

“With their rapidly evolving culture, humans have introduced an “ergosphere” (a sphere of work, as well as of technological and energetic transformations) as a new global component of the Earth system, in addition to the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere, thus changing the overall dynamics of the system.“ [15] [p. 7].

When studying the theory of the Evolution of Knowledge from a Geoethics perspective, it results that the respective study subjects overlap, and subsequently, there is potential to transfer concepts and notions.

In the following, the interest is in transfer from the History of Science to enrich geo-philosophical enquiries, i.e., geoethical studies. Several concepts/notions seem applicable for a systemic description of geo-philosophical appraisals because they offer general concepts/notions for assessing human practices. In particular, the three following concepts, ‘borderline problem’, ‘economy of knowledge’, and ‘external representation’ are of interest because [13]
  • (i) a ‘borderline problem’ is defined as “problems that belong to multiple distinct systems of knowledge. Borderline problems put these systems into contact… (and sometimes into direct conflict) with each other, potentially triggering their integration and reorganisation” [p.427];
  • (ii) an ‘economy of knowledge’ is defined as “societal processes pertaining to the production, preservation, accumulation, circulation, and appropriation of knowledge mediated by its external representation” [p.429];
  • (iii) an ‘external representation’ is defined as “any aspect of the material culture or environment of a society that may serve as an encoding of knowledge” [p.224].

I like to argue: A given geo-philosophical enquiry, “GE i,j” describes a specific borderline problem that links a geoscientific topic and a philosophical insight. The subsequent appraisal shall be into (a) the economy of knowledge associated with the borderline problem, looking into (b) societal processes and (c) external representations mediating the knowledge.

The geoethical issues of hydrology [16], including recent events [e] ‘encoding’ the associated knowledge [17], illustrate the power of these generic concepts/notions (borderline problem, economy of knowledge, and external representation) from the History of Science. Although the notions are pretty general, the concepts are intuitive and provide structure to geo-philosophical enquiries. The least intuitive notion might relate to the concept of ‘external representation’ because it englobes anything with a material side that is shaping how society ‘records’ knowledge for use and practices. In this sense, and as examples, the Cap Town Statement on Geoethics [4] and the geoethics sessions at the EGU General Assembly are external representations of geoethics.

Conclusion

Taking a geo-philosophical perspective means, per se, specifying a borderline problem, an economy of knowledge, and an external representation. Subsequently, J. Renn’s (and coworkers) theory of the Evolution of Knowledge [13] offers a methodology to standardise geo-philosophical enquiries, namely studying:
  1. · What is the given Borderline Problem?
  2. · What is the given Economy of Knowledge?
  3. · What is the given External Representation?
To illustrate the application of this study programme: When studying GSSP sites, Finney and Hilario conclude [10]:

“These international geostandards [GSSPs] are an essential part of the geological heritage of the world and therefore they should be included whenever possible in national or regional geosite or natural monument inventories to ensure their protection. They also represent a great educational and even touristic resource for local communities, as exemplified by the Basque Coast UNESCO Global Geopark”.

The authors sketch in these two phrases the geoethical borderline problem (GSSP as protected sites), the economy of knowledge (scientific, educational and touristic resources), and external representation (national inventories, UNESCO Global Geopark). Using the initial ‘schematic’ notation, the Finney and Hilario geophilosophical appraisal can be specified as:

 geoscientific topic "GSSP" 
philosophical insights "rules for protection national heritage”

Further research will show how practical the concepts of borderline problem, the economy of knowledge, and external representation will be for geophilosophical appraisals.

 

Acknowledgement: This text is an extended abstract of the accepted contribution EGU23-1024 to the EGU General Assembly 2023 (Vienna); https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-1204


[a] https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice/#CompVersNonCompJust
[b] http://www.geoethics.org/definition
[c] The bronze disk in the lower section of the picture below, Ediacara, South Australia. Ediacaran Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point - Wikipedia; By Peter Neaum at English Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12030107
[d] Examples for destructive sampling: https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2572/figures/1
[e] See, for example, the 1st Congress on Geoethics and Groundwater Management (GEOETH&GWM'20), Porto - Portugal 2020

1.     Bohle M, Marone E (2022) Phronesis at the Human-Earth Nexus: Managed Retreat. Front Polit Sci 4:1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpos.2022.819930

2.     Peppoloni S, Di Capua G (2022) Geoethics: Manifesto for an Ethics of Responsibility Towards the Earth. Springer International Publishing, Cham

3.     Peppoloni S, Di Capua G (2012) Geoethics and geological culture: Awareness, responsibility and challenges. Ann Geophys 55:335–341. https://doi.org/10.4401/ag-6099

4.     Di Capua G, Peppoloni S, Bobrowsky P (2017) The Cape Town Statement on Geoethics. Ann Geophys 60:1–6. https://doi.org/10.4401/ag-7553

5.     Sen A (2010) The idea of Justice. Penguin Books, London, UK

6.     Peppoloni S, Bilham N, Di Capua G (2019) Contemporary Geoethics Within the Geosciences. In: Exploring Geoethics. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 25–70

7.     Butler R (2015) Destructive sampling ethics. Nat Geosci 8:817–818. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2572

8.     Druguet E, Passchier CWCW, Pennacchioni G, Carreras J (2013) Geoethical education: A critical issue for geoconservation. Episodes 36:11–18. https://doi.org/10.18814/epiiugs/2013/v36i1/003

9.     Migoń P, Pijet-Migoń E (2023) The role of geodiversity and geoheritage in tourism and local development. Geol Soc London, Spec Publ 530:. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP530-2022-115

10.   Finney SC, Hilario A (2018) GSSPs as International Geostandards and as Global Geoheritage. In: Geoheritage. Elsevier, pp 179–189

11.    Potthast T (2015) Toward an Inclusive Geoethics—Commonalities of Ethics in Technology, Science, Business, and Environment. In: Peppoloni MW (ed) Geoethics. Elsevier, pp 49–56

12.    United Nations (2013) World Social Science Report 2013. OECD Publishing

13.    Renn J (2020) The Evolution of Knowledge - Rethinking Science for the Anthropocene. Princeton University Press, Oxford, UK

14.    Rosol C, Nelson S, Renn J (2017) Introduction: In the machine room of the Anthropocene. Anthr Rev 4:2–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053019617701165

15.   Renn J (2018) The Evolution of Knowledge: Rethinking Science in the Anthropocene. HoST - J Hist Sci Technol 12:1–22. https://doi.org/10.2478/host-2018-0001

16.    Di Baldassarre G, Sivapalan M, Rusca M, et al (2019) Sociohydrology: Scientific Challenges in Addressing a Societal Grand Challenge. Water Resour Res 2018WR023901. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR023901

17.    Abrunhosa M, Chambel A, Peppoloni S, Chaminé HI (2021) Advances in Geoethics and Groundwater Management: Theory and Practice for a Sustainable Development. Springer International Publishing, Cham

 

Friday, 3 March 2023

Similar Game: Urbanite on Earth and Terraformer in Space

This post explores possible ties between urbanites on Earth and terraformers in Space along a gradient of concepts of human-planet intersections.

Summary

Notions like terraforming, planetary gardening, geoengineering or technosphere trace a suite of concepts about anthropogenic planetary change. While reductionist perspectives, e.g., ’…get the physics right then…’ are likely flawed; nevertheless, a planet's physical and chemical qualities mould its climate, geomorphology, and hydrology. Human activities on Earth have nowadays altered its climate, geomorphology, and hydrology, leading to a substantial human-geosphere intersection at the planetary scale. Studying ‘appropriate behaviors and practices wherever human activities interact with the Earth system’ (e.g. geoethics) leads to rationales for reasonable practices at the Human-Earth Nexus. This essay uses these rationales to argue for commonalities between urban, geoengineered and terraformed realms.

 Introduction

Humans living in Space are featured in science fiction (e.g., (Robinson 2012)), settlements on the Moon and Mars are scientifically envisioned (Beech 2021), and terraformed planets were already thought of about half a century ago (Sagan 1973).  Such speculation about space-based anthropogenic planetary change associates concepts such as geoengineering (Morton 2015), ecomodernism (Asafu-Adjaye et al. 2015), or planetary gardening (Klosterwill 2021), which, in turn, serve as a bridge to concepts like technosphere (Szerszynski 2017) or ergosphere (Renn 2020).

"Getting the physics and chemistry right, then 'the rest' would persist, i.e., biological and (human) social life" is a well-trodden reductionist perspective.  Its simple view is flawed, not only because of a probable Gaian bottleneck [*] (Chopra and Lineweaver 2016) in the evolution of rocky planets.  Still, a planet’s physical and chemical qualities mould its climate, geomorphology and hydrology, i.e., the diversity of non-living nature.  Subsequently, climatic, geomorphological and hydrological features suitable for biological life make habitable planets (Langmuir and Broecker 2012) which, biological evolution permitting, also might persist and support social life (Alahuhta et al. 2022).

The human prowess to alter Earth's climate, geomorphology and hydrology at the planetary scale is a central component of current anthropogenic global change (Rosol et al. 2017) (Otto et al. 2020).  Nowadays, human work and the material qualities of Earth are linked at the planetary scale (Grinspoon 2016) (Thomas 2022). The planetary urban realm is the primary human-geosphere intersection, given its size and dynamic.

The geoethics approach of enquiring what are "appropriate behaviours and practices, wherever human activities interact with the [geomorphological] Earth system" (Di Capua et al. 2017) [p.5] led to descriptions of the intersections of human activities and Earth (Bohle et al. 2019). Applying political philosophies led to amalgamating them into geo-philosophical rationales of the Human-Earth Nexus  (Bohle and Marone 2021) (Peppoloni and Di Capua 2022).

Mutatis mutandis, this essay argues that the reductionist perspective 'get climate, geomorphology and hydrology right' provides an analytical perspective to discuss commonalities of urban, geoengineered, and terraformed realms, including sharing of geo-philosophical rationales across them.

Subitem: terraforming & geoengineering

The concept of terraforming connotes adjusting the material qualities of rocky planets (or moons) for possible human residence.  For example, it is envisaged to alter the features of the atmosphere, e.g. the pressure and temperature at the planet's surface.  Next, more evolved constituents of the planet’s qualities should adjust, like climate, geomorphology, or hydrology, and, subsequently, alteration by biological agents is envisaged.

Considering Earth, the notions of geoengineering (Morton 2015) or planetary gardening (Klosterwill 2021) substitute the notion of terraforming. Conceptually, these notions superpose, and geoengineering is terraforming Earth, for example, enhancing carbon-dioxide capture by biological, chemical, or technical means.  Hence, the current climate engineering discussions, such as solar radiation management to recover a climate status quo ante, are downscaled variants of more comprehensive concepts  (Möller 2023).

Notwithstanding explicit geoengineering, the ongoing anthropogenic global change processes of the Great Acceleration (Steffen 2022) might be viewed as unintentional geoengineering, and being both precursors of dedicated geoengineering and supplementing precursors, such as altering terrestrial geomorphology or hydrology, i.e. landscapes (Meiske 2021).  

Subitem: urban realm

Looking for inspiration for ideas of engineering planet Earth, the human activities to build and operate the urban realm exhibit the underlying thinking (Herrero-Jáuregui et al. 2018).  For example, taking an elementary view, houses are built to maintain ambient indoor temperatures in a suitable range.  Taking a less elementary view, creating an urban environment is about niche-building (Fuentes 2017) (Xu et al. 2020) to accommodate the material qualities of the local natural environment.

The notion of human niche describes the protected spaces humans set up for living well, i.e., humans' various complex-adaptive social-ecological systems on planet Earth (Schoon and van der Leeuw 2015) (Bohle and Marone 2019). These systems enable people to produce commodities, goods, or services. In this context, civil engineering works (e.g., power plants, waterways, and tunnels) are material interconnections between human activities and the geosphere and socially enacted activities.

Nowadays, most people live in urban areas, which form an interconnected network of metropoles, cities or towns dispersed over the globe. The concept of an urban realm recognises that urban areas are complex, multi-dimensional systems shaped by various social, economic, and environmental factors, i.e., complex-adaptive social-ecological systems. Nevertheless, the concept urban realm also entails the physical environment, i.e., material externalities of the urban areas such as geomorphology or transport infrastructures. As the archetype of the human niche, urban areas encompass the entire engineered environment, including buildings for housing and work, infrastructures above and below ground, and managed open spaces.

The urban realm extends beyond the perimeters of the urban areas into the so-called countryside, e.g., what would be London or Venice without flood barriers (Witze 2018). More conventional examples include drinking water supply or wastewater discharge. Civil engineering developments in urban spaces, such as bridging a river or housing developments in floodplains, exemplify the ‘how and what’ of building the human niche (at local, regional or planetary scales). For example, a river basin's characteristics and operation must match geomorphology, hydrodynamics, safety rules, and societal needs such as electrical power supply, irrigation, flood control, and leisure activities. The ‘how and what’ of operating a river basin involve value-driven choices, which imply opportunities and risks for different social groups, and often impact distant constituencies.  People are building urban areas to shelter from hazards, to limit dependence on the natural pace of Earth-System dynamics, and to appropriate and process natural resources.

Urban realms behave well when changes in the material qualities of the surrounding physical environments (e.g., weather) are docile.  When they are erratic, e.g., disruptive flooding, heat wave or dust/snowstorm, the living conditions of people are challenged because the fluxes of energy, matter, and information are physically perturbated.

Urban realms shape people's experiential connections with the geosphere. Urbanites' connections with the geosphere are often limited to events (e.g., storms, flooding, or heat waves) that disrupt the engineered structures supporting urban lifestyles (Bohle et al. 2017). Despite such biased individual experiences, societies’ literacy in geosciences is vital for well-behaving production systems, sustainable consumption patterns, and convenient everyday life spanning work and leisure activities. The weather forecast is the primary example illustrating the importance of geosciences literacy in modern societies.

Weather news became a ‘prime time’ event decades ago, substituting individual experiences. Since the early 1950s, the regular broadcasting of weather forecasts has become standard (Lynch 2008) (Bauer et al. 2015). Before broadcasting weather news, systematic weather observations were practised for centuries, supported by the development of instruments, communication technologies, and standard observation protocols and organisations. Weather reports for specialised professional audiences have been produced manually and published since the mid-nineteenth century with increasing regularity. Numerical weather forecasting has become feasible since the early 1950s. From those early days, it took half a century to build the web of providers of weather products and their consumers. In a single narrative, the modern media combine the weather forecast with additional information on meteorological phenomena, climate change, and news of impacts on economic and social activities. The reliability and accuracy of these forecasts directly influence people's work and life, which is dependent upon reliable geoscientific information and professional practice.


Subitem: anthropogenic global change

De-facto, contemporary societies are experimenting with anthropogenic global change (Otto et al. 2020).  They also conceived the concepts of geoengineering and terraforming (Morton 2015) (Dickinson 2021).  These two concepts are exalting human agency, which is experienced as: "[w]ith their rapidly evolving culture, humans have introduced an "ergosphere" (a sphere of work, as well as of technological and energetic transformations) as a new global component of the Earth system,… changing the overall dynamics of the system "(Renn 2018) [p. 7].  Scholars of the history of science have formulated this alternative description of the Human-Earth Nexus for societies on an Anthropocene trajectory (Steffen et al. 2018).

Engineered environments, i.e., the technosphere (Donges et al. 2017) and the people living because of it (United Nations 2014) (Rosol et al. 2017), are the primary representation of the ergosphere.  The ergosphere is built and operated to favour exercising human agency.  It is centred on the urban realm, consisting of urban dwellings and industrialised agriculture, extraction industries and waste depositories, partly off-site, i.e., in the 'wilderness'.  The ecomodernist school of thought has developed such perceptions into a cultural program of geoengineering and urbanised life (Asafu-Adjaye et al. 2015).  Related, although distinct, the concept of 'half-world' (Wilson 2016) (Ellis and Mehrabi 2019), i.e., sharing Earth between humans (World) and other living beings (Nature), see human societies as primarily urban and set apart. Planetary gardening (Klosterwill 2021) is a further related concept of intentionally shaping the planet.

Securing a geographical space of steady abiotic features might seem appropriate to describe the engineering of urban and planetary realms. Although steady abiotic features do not make the essence of urban realms, climate, geomorphology, and hydrology constrain economic operability and human life. Hence, geoengineering and terraforming differ by the scale of the related civil engineering endeavours when considering building and operating the urban realm. A shared category of risks is that non-steady abiotic/non-living environments preclude well-functioning economic, social, cultural, and political activities. 

Subitem: geo-philosophical thinking

Less radical cultural visions than ecomodernism acknowledge, for example, a defiant (Hamilton 2017), human (Lewis and Maslin 2018), or altered (Thomas 2022) planet Earth. These appraisals of the contemporary Human-Earth Nexus combine geoscience knowledge and philosophical insights at a high level of abstraction. When downscaling the levels of abstraction, ambition, or association in the quest for geo-philosophical insights, schools of thought in responsible geosciences are found.  They propose various concepts named, for example, geo-logic (Frodeman 2014), geo-ethics (Di Capua et al. 2021) or geo-societal sense-making (Bohle and Marone 2021).  

The current enquiries into responsible geosciences, which use geoscience knowledge and philosophical insights as inputs, are about the functioning of abiotic environments and human activities' epistemic, moral, social, or political aspects.  The outcome of these enquiries are geo-philosophical appraisals, which describe human practices as part of the Earth System.  Common to these schools of thought is focussing on the abiotic features of planet Earth and human interactions with them.  

Although these schools of thought recognise the role of biological processes in geochemical cycles, they do not consider planet Earth to be regulated by living beings, i.e., applying a Gaian hypothesis (Lovelock J. 1979) (Lenton and van Oijen 2002).  Hence, these schools of thought take as a primary stance a reductionist approach (getting 'right' the physical / material / abiotic / non-living qualities) to the well-functioning planet Earth (Bohle et al. 2020). This apparent limitation can be patched by applying the theory of complex-adaptive social-ecological systems, which ties the physical / material / abiotic / non-living subsystem into a comprehensive mesh of non-separable entities (Preiser et al. 2018) (Biggs et al. 2021).

Subitem:  Complementing current geo-philosophical concepts & applications

The bulk of contemporary geo-philosophical thinking, whether driven philosophically or by responsible geoscience, is not informed by theoretical descriptions of human practices' socioeconomic and political constraints.  Instead, these constraints are treated case-by-case, reflecting professional experiences (Abrunhosa et al. 2021) without using a conceptual (philosophical) framework to describe them.  

A popular variant of geo-philosophical thinking, the geoethical approach, can be summarised (Bohle 2020) in five tenets (agency, virtue, responsibility, knowledge base, inclusivity, and universal human rights).  As observed (Bohle and Marone 2022), this “approach seems incomplete because it is not informed by socioeconomic constraints, which, for example, limit the freedom of human agents.  A remedy can be found in interpreting Hannah Arendt's political philosophy of the “Human Condition” (Arendt 1958) for times of anthropogenic global change.  Her notions of labour (for subsistence), work (of agents of technological change), and act (political agency)” allow addressing matters such as social stratification or differential power.

Hannah Arendt’s general description of human agency distinguishes three categories: labour, work, and civic activities.  She discusses them for European/Western history emphasising their varying mutual relations.  The application to a planet under anthropogenic change does not alter the categories (i.e., the agent) but modifies the object of human agency: (i) category labour, or ‘laboran’ struggling for biological and social reproduction/subsistence as well in local as globalisation contexts; (ii) category work, or ‘homo-faber’ operating a primarily planetary ergosphere; (iii) category civic activities, or ‘zoo-politikon’ attempting Earth system governance in multicultural interaction; 

Subsequently, depending on the human agency category, the application of the tenets of geoethics is modulated.  Although the essence of the five geoethical tenets is kept, a ‘zoo-politikon’ or ‘homo faber’ would probably exercise them more effortlessly than a ‘laboran’.  This shift is simple but realistic and assigns individual responsibility (Bohle 2021) as the geoethics approach intends (Di Capua et al. 2017).

Shared application of the adjusted geo-philosophical concepts in the urban realm (and subsequently in geoengineering and terraforming) is founded on the fact that all these environments are complex-adaptive socio-ecological systems, therefore having similar system dynamics (Bohle 2020): the emergence of new properties; non-separable subsystems; path-dependent, non-reversible, and non-linear development with no final solution; failing of engineering like command-and-control management.  Consequently, generic policy choices apply in various circumstances, although they may guide diverse practices (Bohle and Marone 2022).

Conclusion

The focus on a stable abiotic environment is the feature that indicates terraforming is for urbanites, as studies of SF literature have already revealed (Heise 2016).

The ideas expressed by the notions 'experiencing anthropogenic global change', 'experimenting with global change', 'ecomodernism'/'geoengineering', and 'terraforming' describe a suite of concepts about engineering at a planetary scale, which finds its essential root in ‘building and operating urban realms’. Hence, terraforming is a variant of geoengineering Anthropocene(s), and the urban realm is its central feature.  Therefore, geo-philosophical (e.g., geoethical) descriptions of contemporary societies/humans interacting with planet Earth also apply to humans in terraformed realms.

 

[*] “the maintenance of planetary habitability is a property more associated with an unusually rapid evolution of biological regulation of surface volatiles than with the luminosity and distance to the host star”. [p.8]

 p.s. Copyright of picture - the author

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